{"id":12656,"date":"2021-04-30T16:23:00","date_gmt":"2021-04-30T14:23:00","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/detlev.von.graeve.org\/?p=12656"},"modified":"2022-02-15T23:13:45","modified_gmt":"2022-02-15T22:13:45","slug":"douala5-etrangers-africains-african-foreigners-francais-english","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"http:\/\/detlev.von.graeve.org\/?p=12656","title":{"rendered":"\u00abDouala\u00bb(F\/E 5): \u00ab\u00c9trangers africains\u00bb \/ „African Foreigners“"},"content":{"rendered":"

L’expression \u00ab\u00e9trangers africains\u00bb, qui fait r\u00e9f\u00e9rence aux \u00abAfricains\u00bb en \u00abAfrique\u00bb, peut \u00eatre irritante au d\u00e9but, mais elle d\u00e9crit le sort d’un nombre infini de personnes en Afrique post-coloniale, pas seulement les r\u00e9fugi\u00e9s. Voyons comment les d\u00e9limitations coloniales et postcoloniales, mais aussi les syst\u00e8mes juridiques import\u00e9s, ont cr\u00e9\u00e9 de nouvelles injustices dans la r\u00e9gion des deltas fluviaux communicants.<\/span><\/p>\n

The phrase \u201cAfrican foreigners\u201d, which refers to \u201cAfricans\u201d in \u201cAfrica\u201d, may be irritating at first, but it describes the plight of an endless number of people in post-colonial Africa, not just refugees. Let us see how colonial and postcolonial boundaries, but also imported legal systems, created new injustices in the region of the communicating river deltas.\u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>


Plan Michelin 2021 – Le Littoral Cameroun \u00bbregorge de voies navigables, \u00e0 gauche la p\u00e9ninsule de Bakassi et\u00ab Nigeria \u00bb (cliquez pour l\u2019agrandir de mani\u00e8re impressionnante!)<\/em>
Michelin 2021 Plan – The Cameroon Coast „is full of waterways, on the left the Bakassi peninsula and „Nigeria“ (Click to enlarge impressively!)<\/em><\/span><\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

Mais revenons d’abord \u00e0 l’\u00e8re de la conqu\u00eate europ\u00e9enne:<\/strong><\/h2>\n

\u00a0<\/strong>\u00c0 la fin de son essai \u00abTransactions et interactions culturelles du Delta \u00e0 Douala et au-del\u00e0\u00bb (engl. \u00abAfrican Arts\u00bb t.35,1; 2002), Rosalinde G. Wilcox diffuse des informations historiques sur les contacts entre les deux r\u00e9gions des \u00e9poques pr\u00e9coloniale et coloniale.<\/p>\n

D’abord et avant tout, Wilcox fait mention des Duala: leurs exp\u00e9ditions de p\u00eache leur ont donn\u00e9 les comp\u00e9tences manag\u00e9riales et organisationnelles pour une position forte dans la navigation c\u00f4ti\u00e8re. (51 gauche). Des commer\u00e7ants n\u00e9erlandais de Calabar et du Cross River ont document\u00e9 la langue Duala d\u00e8s le 17\u00e8me si\u00e8cle dans leurs listes de mots. (51 centre).<\/p>\n

Si les Europ\u00e9ens trouvaient imp\u00e9n\u00e9trable la zone continue des mangroves de la c\u00f4te, les \u00e9changes entre les peuples de cette r\u00e9gion ne furent pas entrav\u00e9s. M\u00eame apr\u00e8s la Premi\u00e8re Guerre mondiale, les commer\u00e7ants Efik et Duala ont utilis\u00e9 des itin\u00e9raires alternatifs \u00e9tablis de longue date qui contournaient les points de contr\u00f4le europ\u00e9ens. (51centre)<\/p>\n

La composition de la population sur la c\u00f4te camerounaise a chang\u00e9 depuis le XIXe si\u00e8cle.<\/p>\n

Alors que le nombre de Douala sur la c\u00f4te camerounaise est rest\u00e9 le m\u00eame, d’autres groupes ont augment\u00e9. Les artisans form\u00e9s par la Mission de B\u00e2le – par exemple les charpentiers – du Ghana actuel \u00e9taient d\u00e9j\u00e0 indispensables pour les commer\u00e7ants europ\u00e9ens sur la c\u00f4te camerounaise au XIXe si\u00e8cle. La plupart des \u00e9trangers africains \u00e9taient au service des commer\u00e7ants, des missionnaires et des fonctionnaires. (53) Le recensement allemand mentionnait le \u00abpeuple de Lagos\u00bb \u00e0 Douala. (53 \u00e0 droite)<\/p>\n

Les villages de p\u00eacheurs d’Ijo approvisionnent les plantations gouvernementales en nourriture depuis la fin du XIXe si\u00e8cle. Ces travailleurs embauch\u00e9s venaient en grand nombre de „Lagos“. (53)<\/p>\n

Un exemple:<\/p>\n

Des p\u00eacheurs du Nig\u00e9ria vivaient parmi des Camerounais autochtones \u00e0 Limbe et Bimbia (51 \u00e0 droite). Environ 7500 p\u00eacheurs des Duala, Ibibio et Ijo vivaient \u00e0 Victoria (Limbe) au tournant du 20e si\u00e8cle, mais trois fois plus de Nig\u00e9rians dans les maisons de la Cameroons Development Corp. (53 \u00e0 gauche). Les planteurs europ\u00e9ens ont notamment encourag\u00e9 l’afflux de travailleurs \u00e9trangers.<\/p>\n

Wilcox a pr\u00e9sent\u00e9 la situation \u00abactuelle\u00bb en 2002 comme suit: \u00abLes\u00ab \u00e9trangers \u00bbdans et autour de Douala comprennent les Yoruba, les Hausa, les Igbo, les Ijo, les Efik et des groupes du Ghana, du B\u00e9nin et du Togo.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

But let’s first go back to the era of European conquest:<\/strong><\/span><\/h2>\n

At the end of her essay „Transactions and cultural interactions from the Delta to Douala and beyond“ (engl. „African Arts“ t.35,1; 2002), Rosalinde G. Wilcox disseminates historical information on the contacts between the two regions in pre-colonial and colonial eras.<\/span><\/p>\n

First and foremost, Wilcox mentions the Duala: their fishing expeditions had given them the managerial and organizational skills for a strong position in coastal navigation. (51 left). Dutch traders from Calabar and the Cross River documented the Duala language as early as the 17th century in their word lists. (51 center).<\/span><\/p>\n

If the Europeans found the continuous mangrove zone of the coast impenetrable, trade between the peoples of this region was not hampered. Even after World War I, Efik and Duala traders used long-established alternative routes that bypassed European checkpoints. (51)<\/span><\/p>\n

The composition of the population on the Cameroonian coast has changed since the 19th<\/span> century.<\/span><\/p>\n

While the number of Douala on the Cameroonian coast remained the same, other groups increased. Craftsmen from present-day Ghana – for example carpenters – trained by the Basel Mission were indispensable for European traders on the Cameroonian coast in the 19th century already. Most African foreigners were in the service of traders, of missionaries and government officials. The German census mentioned the \u201cpeople of Lagos\u201d in Douala. (53 right)<\/span><\/p>\n

The fishing villages of Ijo have supplied government plantations with food since the late 19th century. These hired workers came in large numbers from „Lagos“. (53)<\/span><\/p>\n

For example fishermen from Nigeria lived among indigenous Cameroonians in Limbe and Bimbia (51 right). At the turn of the 20th century about 7,500 Duala, Ibibio and Ijo fishermen lived in Victoria town , but three times as many Nigerians in the houses of the Cameroons Development Corp. (53 left). In particular, European planters encouraged the influx of foreign workers.<\/span><\/p>\n

Wilcox presents the situation in 2002 as follows: \u201cThe foreigners in and around Douala include the Yoruba, Hausa, Igbo, Ijo, Efik and groups from Ghana, Benin and Togo.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

„La connexion Kru“<\/h3>\n

\u00abLes Kroo ou Kroo-Boys\u00bb ne constituaient pas seulement le plus grand nombre de travailleurs \u00e9trangers sur la c\u00f4te camerounaise, ils \u00e9taient surtout connus comme des marins capables et intr\u00e9pides – indispensables au succ\u00e8s europ\u00e9en en Afrique de l’Ouest \u2013 aussi comme ouvriers des ports et des plantations, m\u00eame \u00e0 des occasions comme rameurs de course. Tous les observateurs en \u00e9taient ravis, qu’il s’agisse de capitaines et colonialistes – comme Buchner – ou d’ethnologues modernes de la c\u00f4te ouest de la Californie.<\/p>\n

Rosanne Wilcox attire l’attention sur des d\u00e9tails qui ne devraient plus surprendre: Les \u00abKrooboys\u00bb ou \u00abKroo\u00bb \u00e9taient des hommes recrut\u00e9s de diff\u00e9rents peuples de l’Est du Lib\u00e9ria, de la Sierra Leone et de la C\u00f4te d’Ivoire d’aujourd’hui, comme les Grebo, puis aussi de l’ouest du Lib\u00e9ria et m\u00eame de l’int\u00e9rieur des pays c\u00f4tiers. „Toute reconstruction de l’ethnicit\u00e9 et de l’histoire des Kru est au mieux difficile.“ (53)<\/p>\n

Et \u00e0 la fin, elle indique deux fa\u00e7ons tr\u00e8s diff\u00e9rentes de diffuser les conventions artistiques des Ijo et des autres peuples du Delta:<\/h4>\n

Au d\u00e9but du XIXe si\u00e8cle, des patrouilleurs anti-esclavagistes britanniques ont d\u00e9barqu\u00e9 des hommes et des femmes qui avaient \u00e9t\u00e9 lib\u00e9r\u00e9s des navires n\u00e9griers en Sierra Leone et au Lib\u00e9ria. (54) Des historiens de l’art remarquent \u00e9galement la relation formelle entre les masques du Kru et du Grebo et de nombreux masques de l’Ijo et de l’est du delta du Niger. Ils partagent avec eux des visages allong\u00e9s et des yeux tubulaires parfois doubl\u00e9s. En revanche, ils sont tr\u00e8s diff\u00e9rents des masques naturalistes et lisses des Mende, Dan et Guro-Baule. (54)<\/p>\n

Dans la direction oppos\u00e9e des travailleurs migrants Kru (\u201eKroo\u201c) sont venus \u00e0 Fernando Po, l’\u00eele espagnole de canne \u00e0 sucre (aujourd’hui Bioko) \u00e0 vingt miles au large de la c\u00f4te camerounaise. Souvent ils ne sont pas retourn\u00e9s chez eux – contrairement \u00e0 leur habitude connue – mais sont rest\u00e9s et ont influenc\u00e9 la culture de leurs voisins.. Fernando Po, facilement accessible en cano\u00eb depuis le delta, est devenue une \u00e9tape importante pour le commerce et la contrebande, mais aussi pour l\u2019art et id\u00e9es. Et il n’\u00e9tait pas la seule \u00eele au large. (55)<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

„The Kru Connection“<\/span><\/h3>\n

\u201cThe Kroo or Kroo-Boys\u201d were not only the largest number of foreign workers on the Cameroonian coast, they were known above all as capable and intrepid sailors – essential to European success in West Africa – as workers in the harbors and plantations, even on occasions as racing rowers. All observers were delighted, whether they were captains and colonialists – like Buchner – or modern ethnologists of the west coast of California.<\/span><\/p>\n

Rosanne Wilcox draws attention to details which should no longer surprise: The „Krooboys“ or „Kroo“ were men recruited from different peoples of eastern Liberia, Sierra Leone and the Ivory Coast of today like the Grebo, later also from western Liberia and even from the interior of coastal countries. „Any reconstruction of the ethnicity and history of the Kru is difficult at best.“ (53)<\/span><\/p>\n

At the end she points to two very different ways of disseminating art conventions of the Ijo and other Delta peoples:<\/span><\/h4>\n

In the early 19th century, British anti-slavery patrol ships disembarked men and women who had been freed from seized slave ships in Sierra Leone and Liberia. (54) Art historians also notice the formal relationship between the masks of the Kru and Grebo and many masks of the Ijo and the eastern Niger Delta. They share elongated faces with them and the tubular eyes that are sometimes doubled. On the other hand, they are very different from the naturalistic and smooth masks of the Mende, Dan and Guro-Baule. (54)<\/span><\/p>\n

In the opposite direction, Kru came as migrant workers to the Spanish sugar cane island of Fernando Po (today Bioko) twenty miles off the Cameroon Coast and did not return home after years, but stayed and influenced the culture of their surroundings. Fernando Po, which can be easily reached from the delta by canoe, has become an important stop for trade and smuggling, but also for shapes and ideas. And it wasn’t the only offshore island. (55)<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Roxanne Wilcox cite des preuves de la litt\u00e9rature pour toutes les informations. Sa th\u00e8se g\u00e9n\u00e9rale devient tr\u00e8s claire apr\u00e8s une lecture attentive.<\/p>\n

Roxanne Wilcox cites evidence from the literature for all information. Her general thesis becomes very clear after careful reading.<\/span><\/p>\n

– Warning: Please do not expect the original wording. Back translation Gv<\/span><\/span> –
\n<\/span><\/h5>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Conflits frontaliers postcoloniaux entre Cameroun et Nigeria<\/strong><\/h2>\n
\"\"<\/a>

German Cameroons unimaps.com<\/p><\/div>\n

On a tendance \u00e0 se moquer des diff\u00e9rends des concurrents europ\u00e9ens avant et apr\u00e8s 1914, diff\u00e9rends sur des domaines encore inconnus. Pendant trente ans de 1884 \u00e0 1913, le Reich allemand a jalonn\u00e9 ses revendications territoriales au Cameroun (1913 le p\u00e9ninsule de Bakassi) et a acquis sur papier une zone tr\u00e8s in\u00e9gale et \u00absauvage\u00bb de la Cross River au Tchad et au bassin du Congo. En 1916, la chasse sanglante \u00e9tait termin\u00e9e pour eux. Serait-ce moins probl\u00e9matique dans la r\u00e9gion aujourd’hui sans son \u00e9pisode coloniale de 30 ans?<\/p>\n

Au XIXe si\u00e8cle, la c\u00f4te du Cameroun \u00e9tait sous influence anglaise jusqu’au Gabon au sud. Les Fran\u00e7ais s’int\u00e9ressaient surtout au centre\u00a0 et au nord islamis\u00e9s. Aurait-il \u00e9t\u00e9 possible de tracer des fronti\u00e8res moins explosives entre les deux?<\/p>\n

Pendant plus qu’un si\u00e8cle depuis 1884 les fronti\u00e8res \u00e9taient plusieurs fois d\u00e9plac\u00e9es, en particulier dans l’ouest du Cameroun. Aujourd’hui encore, la fronti\u00e8re Niger-Cameroun n’est pas compl\u00e8tement d\u00e9limit\u00e9e.<\/p>\n

Je me demande: Wilcox a-t-elle minimis\u00e9 ou ignor\u00e9 les effets \u00e0 long terme du projet colonial paneurop\u00e9en? Lors de son s\u00e9jour de recherche en 1988\/89 et surtout en 2002, les conflits dans la zone de transition entre les deux \u00c9tats postcoloniaux \u00e9taient \u00e9vidents.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Postcolonial border disputes between Cameroon and Nigeria<\/span> <\/span><\/h2>\n

There is a tendency not to take seriously the territorial squabble of European competitors before and after 1914 over areas that were not yet known. The German Reich staked out its territorial claims in Cameroon for thirty years, from 1884 to 1913 (Bakassi Peninsula), and thus acquired on paper a disparate and ‚wild‘ area from the Niger Delta in two narrow strips to Lake Chad and to the Congo Basin. By 1916 the bloody hunt was over for them. Would there be fewer problems in the region today without the 30-year German colonial episode?<\/span><\/p>\n

For more than a century – since 1884 – the borders have been moved several times, especially in western Cameroon. Even today, the Niger-Cameroon border is not completely demarcated.<\/span><\/p>\n

I wonder: Did Wilcox downplay or ignore the long-term effects of the pan-European colonial project? During his research stay in 1988\/89 and especially in 2002, the conflicts in the transition zone between the two postcolonial states were evident.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\u00abBAKASSI\u00bb<\/h3>\n

Prenons, par exemple, le diff\u00e9rend frontalier depuis les ann\u00e9es 1980 sur la p\u00e9ninsule de Bakassi dans le Golfe, riche en p\u00e9trole et en gaz. La \u00abCour internationale de justice\u00bb de La Haye a attribu\u00e9 la p\u00e9ninsule au Cameroun comme \u00abpropri\u00e9taire l\u00e9gitime\u00bb en 2002 en raison de l’accord entre l’Empire allemand et le Royaume-Uni en 1913. L’ONU a finalement pouss\u00e9 le Nig\u00e9ria \u00e0 un accord avec le Cameroun en 2006, qui l’oblige de se retirer jusqu’en 2013 apr\u00e8s une p\u00e9riode de transition, et cela ind\u00e9pendamment du fait qu’\u00e0 300 000 Efik, 90% de la population, \u00e9taient des \u00abNig\u00e9rians\u00bb. en.wikipedia (LINK),<\/a> voir aussi fr.wikipedia<\/a>) raconte l’histoire chronologiquement sous le titre \u00abBakassi conflict\u00bb. Voici quelques d\u00e9tails importants:<\/p>\n

Apr\u00e8s l’accord, de nombreux r\u00e9sidents ont eu des difficult\u00e9s \u00e0 d\u00e9terminer leur nationalit\u00e9 reconnue. En raison du manque de documents d’identit\u00e9, un certain nombre de Nig\u00e9rians risquaient de devenir apatrides apr\u00e8s le transfert de Bakassi.\u00a0 Premi\u00e8rement, les rebelles nig\u00e9rians montaient sur sc\u00e8ne, les Bakassi Freedom Fighters<\/em> (BFF). \u00abDepuis septembre 2008, plus d’un tiers de la population nig\u00e9riane a fui vers le Nig\u00e9ria.\u00bb Le conflit, qui \u00e9tait parfois \u00abchaud\u00bb \u00e0 l’\u00e9poque, s’est d’abord transform\u00e9 en \u00abinsurrection de bas niveau\u00bb.<\/p>\n

Mais en 2018, un soul\u00e8vement majeur a \u00e9clat\u00e9 dans les r\u00e9gions anglophones du Cameroun, y compris \u00e0 Bakassi.“ En 1999 d\u00e9j\u00e0 , une milice arm\u00e9e clandestine avait accompasgn\u00e9 la protestation civile du \u00abSouth Cameroon\u00bb contre la discrimination dans la \u00abR\u00e9publique Cameroun\u00bb. Et la crise permanente s’aggrave actuellement.<\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a>Take, for example, the border dispute since the 1980s over the oil and gas-rich Bakassi Peninsula in the Gulf. The \u201cInternational Court of Justice\u201d in The Hague awarded the peninsula to Cameroon as \u201crightful owner\u201d in 2002 due to the agreement between the German Empire and the United Kingdom in 1913. The UN finally pushed Nigeria to an agreement with Cameroon in 2006, which obliged Nigeria to withdraw until 2013 after a period of transition, and this regardless of the fact that at 300,000 Efik – 90% of the population – were „Nigerians“. The website en.wikipedia<\/em> (LINK<\/a>) tells the story chronologically under the title „Bakassi conflict“. Here are some important details:<\/span><\/p>\n

After the agreement, many residents found it difficult to determine a recognized nationality. Due to the lack of identity documents, a number of Nigerians were at risk of becoming stateless after Bakassi’s transfer. First, the Nigerian rebels were taking the stage, the Bakassi Freedom Fighters (BFF). \u201cSince September 2008, more than a third of the Nigerian population has fled to Nigeria.\u201d The conflict, which was sometimes \u201chot\u201d at the time, first turned into a \u201clow-level insurgency.\u201d<\/span><\/p>\n

\"Doku\"<\/a>

unhcr_nigeria_-_cameroon_refugees_situation_-_overall_refugee_population_coverage_-_july2020- \u00a0 LINK ACAPS<\/a><\/strong><\/p><\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

But in 2018, a major uprising broke out in the English-speaking regions of Cameroon, including Bakassi. Since 1999, a clandestine armed militia has accompanied the civil demonstrations in South Cameroon against discrimination in the R\u00e9publique Cameroon. And the permanent crisis is getting worse.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

L’expression \u00ab\u00e9trangers africains\u00bb, qui fait r\u00e9f\u00e9rence aux \u00abAfricains\u00bb en \u00abAfrique\u00bb, peut \u00eatre irritante au d\u00e9but, mais elle d\u00e9crit le sort d’un nombre infini de personnes en Afrique post-coloniale, pas seulement les r\u00e9fugi\u00e9s. Voyons comment les d\u00e9limitations coloniales et postcoloniales, mais aussi les syst\u00e8mes juridiques import\u00e9s, ont cr\u00e9\u00e9 de nouvelles injustices dans la r\u00e9gion des deltas […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[253,206,6],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-12656","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-douala-project-english-francais","category-translations-traductions","category-frueher"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/detlev.von.graeve.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/12656","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/detlev.von.graeve.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/detlev.von.graeve.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/detlev.von.graeve.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/detlev.von.graeve.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=12656"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"http:\/\/detlev.von.graeve.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/12656\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":13659,"href":"http:\/\/detlev.von.graeve.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/12656\/revisions\/13659"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/detlev.von.graeve.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=12656"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/detlev.von.graeve.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=12656"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/detlev.von.graeve.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=12656"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}